Contra Minutemen : AZ IMC

The person with the snake flag claims to be from Spain. He apparently worships some sort of serpent-god. Is this common in Spain?

Headline in an article in today's paper said:"Study:Border crossers not penniless,destitute"

Gee,with all this $$$ the illegals have,can you buy some X-Mass gifts for me?

Good photos. Let me bring you up to speed on the gent you refer to being from Spain. He is in fact a Minuteman. He may be from Spain, that is his business with you if he told you that, no reason not to believe him eh? The flag is known as the Gasden Flag, from the Revolutionary War with Britian. This was when the first Minutemen took their stand in the colonies, later known as the USA. "Dont Tread On Me" refers to the British King, treading on its citizens in the New World. Today, the Minutemen use that flag in protest to our government for allowing poor border protection, for allowing illegal aliens to come into this naiton without fear, and for not taking a greater stance on illegal immigration...until now. The message is also directed to those that oppose our efforts. The Minutemen are Americans who value the rule of law and rights of all people. That includes American Citizens and their protection from invasion of illegal aliens into OUR nation. We demand that they be removed at a mich higher rate, and stopped at the border from crossing illegally. The snake is not a god. The rattlesnake represents those that will take a stand and 'bite back' at those that oppose our movement, and the Revolutionary movement of the 1700s. The Minutemen are not a religious movement and do not care who one prays to.

SO

Crossing the border illegally; $1,500.00

Transportation to an interior community; $1,000

New Clothes & Fake ID; $250

Getting here without being raped, robbed or killed; Priceless

For Everything else there's MasterCard

if you minutemen are such patriots, why haven't you overthrown the corporate tyranny yet? and why don't we see y'all protesting corporate globalisation and so called free trade?

'cause y'all are false patriots and would rather pick on poor brown people instead of standing up to the rich white pigs that are ruining this country, that's why.

cowards.

The majority of us aren't full time protesters such as yourself. I don't give a fuck about globalization. It is only an issue for the hippies on the left. No one else gives a shit. Really.

Isn't it easy and convenient to forget your own history?

In 1492, European "explorers" began illegally "immigrating" to Central and South America. The movement continued "north of the border" through the 16 and 17th centuries. Many of these self-proclaimed "explorers" were "poor and penniless opportunists" in their countries of origin, hoping for "fame and fortune" in the "New World".

In 1607, Virginia Company "explorers" from England landed on the east coast of what is now known as Virginia to establish the Jamestown Colony.. The Algonquian Nation, which had settled the land hundreds of years earlier, considered these foreigners a dangerous threat to their culture and moved to expel the "immigrants" from illegally-occupied lands. The colonists were only looking to "make a better living for themselves", and in doing so, "illegally" occupied millions of square miles of tribal lands, eventually establishing the British American Colonies.

In 1773, Bostonians conspired with local tribes from the area in an "illegal" action later called "The Boston Tea Party". This "illegal action" sparked a movement of "illegal" rebellion in the "immigrant" colonies to overthrow the British Colonial Government, also known as the American Revolutionary War.

In 1845, the United States made a move to "illegally" annex a northern territory of Mexico now known as Texas, which had been "illegally" colonized by "immigrants" and declared a republic 10 years earlier.
Furthering a policy of "illegal land-grabbing" west of the Mississippi River, and continuing a trend begun by French, Spanish and English "immigrants" in the 1600's, the United States eventually annexed (illegally) all of the lands in Mexico's northern territories (New Mexico, Arizona, California), as well as cheated French and Spanish interests out of (illegally) occupied territories (stolen by force from tribal nations years earlier and settled by European "immigrants" in central and northwest areas (later known as the "Louisiana Purchase").

Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, the United States faced a shortage of American citizens available (and willing) to occupy and "immgrate" to these recently "purchased" lands west of the Mississippi River. This realization eventually materialized into the Great Emigration Movement of the mid to late 1800's, opening the doors for millions of "immigrants" to either secure lands in the West or "immigrate" from other European, African and Asian countries. All in the hope of "furthering the interests and economy of the great land of America." To the immigrants (many entering the country illegally as stowaways or brought in illegally as indentured servants ex. Chinese), they were coming to America in a desperate attempt to "just make a place for ourselves in the World.", leaving shattered economies behind in their own homelands.

So, just in case any of you missed those tidbits of American history in school, thought I'd refresh your memories a little...

And for the comment about not wanting "illegal immigrants in OUR country"... this "country" was never yours to begin with. Check up on your geneology sometime... And remember, the Nazi Party of Germany and the Islamic Revolution of Iran (just two of many modern examples whom most "patriotic" Americans despise with a passion) became so popular because they wanted to supposedly 'take back THEIR country from the "illegal immigrants" who were "spoiling" THEIR culture and economy." Remember that...

And by the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, and by contributions to your PBS station from viewers like you. Thank you.

NARRATOR: 1,000 years ago, a small band of Vikings set sail from an isolated colony at the edge of the known world, in Greenland. Conditions were harsh on this island continent of ice and snow, and the settlers were eager to improve their lives. At the helm was Leif Erikson, the son of a Viking chieftain. Heading westward into the unknown, he was searching for a new land, and new hope for his people. The Icelandic Sagas describe the voyage of Leif the Lucky:

VOICE OF ICELANDIC SAGA: Leif, the son of Erik the Red, bought a ship and engaged a crew of 35. After sailing many days, two in a northeast wind, they sighted new land and went ashore on an island north of it. The weather was fine. There was dew on the grass, and the first thing they did was to get some of it on their hands and put it to their lips, and to them it seemed the sweetest thing they had ever tasted.

NARRATOR: Leif Erikson called this place Vinland - or Wineland - because wild grapes grew there. Where was this new land, covered in sweet dew? For years, scholars argued about the location of Vinland. Was it really true that the Vikings had landed in America 500 years before Columbus?

GUDRUN NORDAL: Well, the Sagas that are called often the Vinland Sagas about the discovery of Greenland and America, they were written in the 13th century, so we expect them to be accurate up to a point, about the actual big events, the fact that Greenland got discovered, and then Vinland, or America. That we would expect as being fact. But how it all happened and who were on the ships, that's of course more difficult for us to check.

BIRGITTA WALLACE: For about 150 years, people have been searching much of North America, at least the eastern parts of it, for anything indicating that the Norse were here. Because we knew about it already from the Icelandic Sagas, that they would have been somewhere in northeastern North America.

NARRATOR: With no hard archeological evidence, rumors and theories placed them up and down the east coast - anywhere from Canada to Florida. In the 1950s, a Norwegian explorer named Helge Ingstad became obsessed with the Vinland mystery. Ingstad decided to retrace Leif Erikson's journey. He would follow clues in the Sagas, and his own sailor's intuition.

HELGE INGSTAD: It was a completely unknown ocean. They had the current with them all the time along the coast of Greenland, and then across the Davis Strait, they had the current with them, pushing them south to Vinland, Labrador, and Newfoundland.

NARRATOR: The ancient saga told of a Wonderstrand, a beach so long, it took Leif's crew more than a day to sail past it. Ingstad found a beach that fit the description, near Cape Porcupine in Labrador: 200 feet wide and more than 40 miles long. According to the saga, Vinland was two days' journey beyond the Wonderstrand. Following the trail, the explorer sailed exactly two days to the south, landing on the northern tip of Newfoundland. Ingstad was convinced that the shores of Newfoundland would have felt like home to the Vikings.

HELGE INGSTAD: Norse people would settle in a land where their old pattern of culture fitted. I mean, in Newfoundland, they will find what they were used to, hunting seals, hunting caribou and all that stuff.

NARRATOR: Ingstad traveled up and down the Newfoundland coast, searching for some sign of a Viking presence. Finally in 1960, a fisherman from the tiny village of L'Anse-Aux-Meadows led him to the ruins of what may have been houses, outside of town.

HELGE INGSTAD: I didn't know of course who had built these houses. It might have been Indians, it might have been Eskimos, it might have been fishermen, it might have been whalers, and at last it might have been Norsemen. But only, only excavation could tell the story. But personally, I had a - I had a strong feeling that this was a place that the Norse people would like to build their houses on this terrace, with a view all over the sea. You could see clear over to Labrador, with the green meadows around the houses.

NARRATOR: Ingstad's wife, archeologist Anne Stine, led the excavations to uncover the true identity of the ruins. Slowly, the foundations of turf-walled houses came to light, along with ancient fireplaces. They looked like Viking buildings, but the design alone wasn't proof. They needed some artifacts that were indisputably Viking. Finally, they found what they were looking for: A ship rivet, made of iron. A bronze cloak pin. And a spindle whorl - exactly like those found in Iceland. The objects were clearly Viking in origin, not Native American. Today, the settlement at L'Anse-Aux-Meadows has been reconstructed with solid sod houses, just like the homes in Greenland and Iceland. Although Ingstad felt the location - right next to the sea—was a natural for a Norse site, archeologists like Birgitta Wallace realized this wasn't a typical Viking farm.

BIRGITTA WALLACE: One reason we know why it's a base camp and not a normal Norse farm is its location. This is an absolutely abnormal location for a Norse site, right on the coast, completely exposed to the sea winds. In Greenland, all the sites, and even in Iceland, are located at the heads of fjords, where it is nice and protected. And it's unique, too, because all the buildings on the site are a very typical Icelandic or early Greenlandic style. But the way they are combined is totally different, and from that we know it was not a permanent farm—not an attempt to establish a colony here.

NARRATOR: The arrangements of the buildings, along with the artifacts the Vikings left behind, suggest that the site served as a base - inhabited mostly by men, who would frequently sail off to explore the surrounding coastline.

BIRGITTA WALLACE: A few women were brought along as well, to take care of cooking, clothes maintenance and that sort of thing, cleaning, washing. There certainly was some evidence of women here but much less so than evidence of men. For instance, a spindle whorl for spinning and a little needle sharpener that we only find in female context back in Scandinavia.

NARRATOR: L'Anse-Aux-Meadows is indisputably Viking - but is it the Vinland of the Sagas? The ancient text explicitly details the discovery of wild grapes by Leif Erikson's crew.

BIRGITTA WALLACE: The finding of grapes would be very interesting to the Norse, because items like walnuts, wine, that were really exotic foods, and destined for chieftains who then could impress his surroundings with that, and that was one way chieftains gained prestige and authority. To have large banquets and to be able to serve wine would have been much more impressive than we can ever imagine today.

NARRATOR: But no grapes grow anywhere near L'Anse-Aux-Meadows, nor did they in Viking times. The nearest wild grapes are found in New Brunswick, several hundred miles to the south. Archeologists did uncover evidence that the Vikings may have gathered some exotic foods in the south, and shipped them back to the base camp at L'Anse-Aux-Meadows.

BIRGITTA WALLACE: With the Norse objects found in a bog here, we found nuts, butternuts, also called white walnuts, that don't grow north or northeast of New Brunswick and the Valley of St. Lawrence. And what is really interesting about this is that those nuts grow precisely in the same areas as you can find wild grapes. So the concept of Vinland, meaning "Wineland," is probably really based on the finding of grapes.

NARRATOR: Grapes and nuts were just a few of the rich natural resources that would have drawn the Vikings further south along the eastern seaboard. According to the Sagas, Leif Erikson spent only one winter in Vinland and then sailed back to Greenland.

WILLIAM FITZHUGH: When Leif arrived home from Vinland, there must have been joyous outpouring in the Norse communities in Greenland. Remember that this is only a few years after the Norse communities got started in Greenland. And so this was still - the people were still settling in; this was not a large population in Greenland by this time. But to have Leif come back and say, "My God, there is another land out there that is full of stuff." This was really territory that the Norse could see themselves settling in.

NARRATOR: But there was a major problem with the new territory. People already lived there. Lots of people. The Vikings called those they encountered in North America "scrailings."

WILLIAM FITZHUGH: The term scrailing was a Viking term which was used for their kind of barbarians, outsiders to their life, and probably, really it translates as kind of outcasts or ragamuffins or something like this. And so they called everybody scrailings to the west of Greenland.

NARRATOR: According to the Sagas, after Leif Erikson's return, there was a series of voyages to Vinland, most led by other members of his family. Again and again, the Vikings came into conflict with "scrailings" and realized how vulnerable they were to attacks by the Native Americans. Leif's own brother Thorvald was killed and buried in the new land.

WILLIAM FITZHUGH: We have this idea that Europeans are just, you know, somehow superior to everybody else out there. And if they're Vikings with their swords and their big boats and everything, sure, why not just roll over all of these people? And that just wasn't the case. By this time, these - we're not really speaking of Vikings in the raiding sense of Europe. These were families. These were people who had people at home who depended on them. The boats that they were traveling in were the most precious commodity that they had as family assets. So if you lost a boat, you not only couldn't get home, but you know, your family at home was destroyed, too.

NARRATOR: The Vikings were outnumbered in North America, and they quickly retreated to their peaceful homes in Greenland, giving up the idea of a permanent settlement in the New World. The archeological evidence at L'Anse-Aux-Meadows reveals a small, vulnerable community that didn't last.

BIRGITTA WALLACE: When people live on a site like this, they throw all their garbage out the front door. And that's a very good indication of how long they were there. And here these garbage heaps were extremely small. So, they could only have been here for a few years at the most.

NARRATOR: L'Anse-Aux-Meadows, occupied for just a short time around 1000 AD, is the only known Norse settlement in North America. Over the centuries, the Vikings' exploits in the far west would gradually fade into oblivion. But even while they were setting out on their pioneering journeys along the coasts of Canada, on the other side of the world, Scandinavians were pushing eastward, and would meet with a very different fate. In Moscow, behind the Kremlin's forbidding walls, intriguing evidence of the Vikings' exploits came to light. In 1988, construction workers stumbled upon an ancient buried treasure, 15 feet beneath the ground. Hundreds of pieces of royal jewelry had been hidden away in the 13th century, just as the Mongols were bearing down on the Russian fortress. Most of the treasure was of obvious Slavic design, but a few pieces had a distinctly different flavor. This silver arm ring decorated with dragon heads bore a striking resemblance to Swedish bracelets. And silver filigree pendants, once strung onto a necklace, were almost identical to Viking beads. What was Viking jewelry doing in the hands of Russia's early rulers, 200 years after the end of the Viking Age? Were these merely valuable objects traded from a faraway land? Or were they evidence of a more intimate connection between Scandinavia and early Russia? The Soviets had always emphasized the Slavic origins of the Russian state, but in fact, Russia's oldest historical documents tell a very different story. In the 11th and 12th centuries, when Moscow was just a small town, the center of the young Russian state stood here, among the cathedrals of Kiev, today the capital of the Ukraine. At the Lavra monastery in Kiev, several monks made the first known attempt to compile a comprehensive history of their land.

Now known as the Primary Russian Chronicle, some of the text was written by a monk called Nestor in the early 12th century. Nestor wrote of historical battles and peace treaties. And he told a remarkable story about the foundations of Russia, in the days when it was inhabited by Slavs and many other tribes.

HISTORIC VOICE: The Slavs ruled themselves, but these were violent times without law or order. Tribe fought against tribe and war came among them. And they went over the sea to the Vikings that were called Rus, like other Vikings are called Northmen. The Slavic tribes said to the Rus: "Our land is rich and vast, but there is no order in it. Come and rule over us." Three royal brothers were chosen, and they came with all the Rus. The oldest brother, Rurik, became Prince of Novgorod.

NARRATOR: According to Nestor, the founders of Russia were actually Vikings who came from across the sea to bring order to the unruly Slavs. Known as the Rus, it was they who gave Russia its name. But is there any truth to this story?

JONATHAN SHEPARD: The Russian Primary Chronicle is a brave effort. I'm sure there wasn't a little band of Slavs, a little band of Finns, and a little band of Balts who got together and sent a message to the Scandinavians saying, "Please, we have no law amongst us, we need some order. Come and send princes and governors." That is roughly speaking the story which the Primary Chronicle offers. Things were never quite as neat as that. But behind the fantasy, behind the pretty story, I think there is a kernel of truth.

NARRATOR: The Vikings, indeed, did journey to Russia. But almost certainly, they were not invited.

THOMAS NOONAN: These were not nice guys who came in to help out the local peoples. These were ambitious, ruthless, almost Mafioso types, who wanted to build a fortune, to get wealthy, to become powerful. They came in, they did what they were supposed to have done according to Chronicle, but not for the reasons that are alleged.

NARRATOR: Was it possible that the Vikings, unruly and divided themselves, could unify a vast country like Russia? Since the fall of the Soviet Union, a new curiosity about the role of the Vikings has fueled investigations throughout Russia and the Ukraine. And sure enough, Viking artifacts have turned up all over. Some of the earliest were found on the shores of Lake Ladoga, a stepping stone between the Baltic Sea and the Russian heartland. Here, in Staraja Ladoga, archeologists are uncovering evidence of a strong Scandinavian presence. Remarkably well-preserved wooden objects, like this tiny sculpture of a Viking man. A Viking dragon head made of bone, perhaps a model for a boat stem. And leather shoes of Scandinavian design, preserved in clay for almost 1,000 years. The digs at Staraja Ladoga reveal that the town was founded in the middle of the 8th century, as a trading and craft center. It was a multi-ethnic town, with a mixture of Slavs and Finns. But even at the very beginning, the Vikings were there—for reasons that were very different from those that drove them to raid western Europe.

THOMAS NOONAN: In the west you had lots of towns, monasteries located along the sea coasts and along big rivers which went into the sea coasts. It was easy to raid those. In Russia, on the other hand, there were no monasteries and towns near the coast. In fact, you had to go far inland to find any major centers of habitation.

NARRATOR: Why did the Vikings venture so far to the east, across dangerous seas, to a land without rich monasteries or even towns? Important clues can be found near Lake Mälaren in Sweden, the part of Scandinavia closest to Russia. Rune stones bear testimonials to the Vikings who ventured across the Baltic Sea, to Russia.

RUNE STONE VOICE: Alve let this stone be erected for Arnfast, his son. He went east, to the land of the Rus. They fared like men far after gold, and in the east gave the eagle food. They died southward in Arab lands.

RUNE STONE VOICE: Alve let this stone be erected for Arnfast, his son. He went east, to the land of the Rus. They fared like men far after gold, and in the east gave the eagle food. They died southward in Arab lands.

NARRATOR: In the soils around Birka, archeologists have found evidence that Russia was only a way station en route to the Vikings' real goal: the riches of the Arab world. Here were found masses of Arab silver coins, minted in Baghdad in the 8th century. Too far away to raid, only a few Vikings made it to Baghdad, but enough to open up trade routes through Russia. What could the Vikings have offered in return for the Arab silver? Tiny clues were uncovered in the dig at Birka.

ANDREW JONES: Most of the things you find when you're sieving are not very important. They're tiny little fragments of stone. Here are some pieces of charcoal, but here's a little bone. This is a toe bone. It's probably from a mammal, it is bigger than a cat, but smaller than a sheep. I guess it may be a dog bone, something like that.

NARRATOR: Many of the bones found here, from animals like red squirrel, pine marten, and red fox, puzzled the archeologists at first.

ANDREW JONES: What's really remarkable about these discoveries is that when you look at them, the only bones that are present are bones from the toes and the feet. And this was a mystery. Why are there only bones from toes and feet? And it's because all these animals, pine marten, red fox and red squirrel, are used as fur, and when trappers catch the animals, they skin them but they always leave the feet on the—with the fur, and that is traded over very long distances. So this is evidence of a fur industry.

NARRATOR: During the Viking Age, furs were a highly valued commodity. The Viking traders soon discovered that the best pelts were in northern Russia - where Finnish tribes trapped coveted beaver, sable, and ermine. The challenge for the Vikings was to acquire these furs in Russia and transport them in huge quantities to Baghdad, or to Arab traders along the way. The trip could cover as much as 2,000 miles through swamps, forests, and steppe. Luckily, much of the vast Russian interior was cut through by a labyrinth of rivers. But they weren't all connected. On one route from Staraja Ladoga, the traders headed south across Lake Ilmen and had to row or sail upstream on the Lovat River. After a few hundred miles, the Lovat narrows, eventually shrinking to a shallow stream.

At this point, the Viking traders had no choice but to unload their vessels and haul both their ships and cargo over land, to the headwaters of another river. For the great ships the Vikings used to travel the North Atlantic, this journey on the Russian rivers would have been virtually impossible. Here, the Vikings had to rely on much smaller vessels - probably no more than 40 feet in length. Illustrations on Rune stones and remains of cargo vessels found in the east have helped scientists reconstruct the kinds of boats most likely used by the Vikings in Russia.

CHRISTER WESTERDAHL [voice over translation]: This boat is based on an archeological find from Lapori on the Finnish side of the Russian border. It is a good example of a small Viking cargo ship, probably designed for transports along the River Neva to Staraja Ladoga in northern Russia, probably from the 10th century. It is quite remarkable, with its broad yet thin planking. This is very characteristic for Viking shipbuilding. Here it is only 16 millimeters thick, about 2/3 of an inch.

NARRATOR: The thin planking made the cargo vessels exceptionally light, a definite advantage when it came time to hoist the boats out of the water and drag them over land for several miles. To better understand the challenges faced by the Vikings, a team of Swedish researchers attempted to retrace one of these difficult journeys, using their own reconstruction of a Viking cargo-carrier.

JAN JOHANSSON [voice over translation]: When you organize a trip like this, you try to imagine the difficulties. You study written sources, you do research along the way, talk to the people who live along the route. But you can't really get a true picture of what it was like. The Lovat River was a lot more difficult than we expected. We had to pull the boat from the shore through difficult rapids, and the area was infested by mosquitoes and wasps. At one point, it became so difficult we had to pull the boat out of the water. With very simple tools, we built a Viking-style wagon.

NARRATOR: In the dense forests of Russia, with only dirt roads and rough trails, hauling cargo vessels between rivers - known as portage - would have been a daunting task for the Viking traders. Some scholars believe they could not have done it on their own.

JONATHAN SHEPARD: The role of the portages is absolutely vital, because the numbers of Vikings were never very great. They could navigate the boats, they could repair them, but for matters of portaging, of dragging a boat perhaps dozens of miles, from one river head to another, you needed muscle power. That was provided by the locals, by the Slavs, the Balts, or the Finns.

NARRATOR: Wherever the Viking traders needed to leave the river and travel over land, local tribes would come together to haul the boats. They would also bring in food and other provisions for the Viking journeymen. At these key locations, new towns began to grow. Many became important trading centers. At a portage site between the Dvina and Dnieper rivers, a Viking town sprang up just outside modern day Smolensk. Here, the traders would stop to repair their ships and buy what they needed for the journey ahead. On the outskirts of the city, archeologists discovered one of the largest cemeteries dating to the Viking Age, with over 5,000 graves, filled with an enormous treasure of silver jewelry. The vast majority of the burials belong to local Slavs or Balts, but about 100 graves contain Scandinavian artifacts.

GLEB LEBEDJEV [voice over translation]: The earliest grave mounds date to the 9th century. And in this part of the field, in one of the grave mounds, we have traced a magnificent way of burying the dead, with the body placed in a riverboat and then set on fire. This is a ceremony, typical for the Swedish Vikings, who brought the tradition over to Russia.

NARRATOR: This burial ritual was described in chilling detail by an Arab diplomat, named Ibn Fadlan, who encountered Viking traders on his journeys through Russia.

HISTORIC VOICE: One day I heard that an important man among them was dead. His ship had been pulled up onto land, and supports were built for it. They carried him into a tent set up on the ship. They sacrificed a dog, horses and hens, and threw them in the ship. They dressed him in beautiful clothes, and they came with all his weapons laid beside him. His skin had turned all black, due to the cold in the country. And they asked his slave girls: "Who wants to die with him?" One girl said yes, and I looked at her, and she looked completely confused. An old woman that was called the Angel of Death now forced the slave girl into the tent where her master lay. The men outside started beating their sticks on their shields so that the sound of her screaming would not be heard, lest the other girls be too frightened to seek death with their masters. The wood they had prepared under the ship was set alight. Then a strong and frightful wind blew up, and before an hour had passed, ship, wood, slave girl and chieftain had all turned to ashes and then to dust.

NARRATOR: Ibn Fadlan depicted the Vikings as barbaric and uncivilized, but even he admired their skill and tenacity as traders. The Viking merchants who ventured into Russia were both ruthless and clever. They soon dominated the local tribes of Finns and Slavs. They collected tribute - usually in the form of furs and slaves - and exchanged it with Arab traders for valuable Baghdad silver. The trade networks they built gradually helped unify the eastern lands, once divided by many languages and cultures, into a cohesive unit. Today, most scholars believe that the Rus who founded Russia were indeed Vikings.

GLEB LEBEDJEV [voice over translation]: First of all, the word Rus, and I share this opinion with many historians, originated from the word "Ruotsi" which means Sweden in Finnish, and from "Rhos," a word found on Viking Rune stones, which means rower. The Russian Chronicles reveal that "Rus," the designation of the eastern Vikings, referred to the military crew that rowed the ships on which the Viking princes arrived.

NARRATOR: The Viking Rus grew rich off the silver trade with Baghdad, but in the late 10th century, the Arab silver mines began to dry up. In search of a new source of wealth, one group of Vikings moved their base to Kiev, then just a small village on the Dnieper River. The Russian Chronicle tells its own dramatic version of the Vikings' arrival in Kiev. According to the story, two Viking warriors betrayed their leader and went to Kiev to establish their own kingdom.

When their treachery was discovered, another Viking named Oleg sailed to Kiev to destroy them.

HISTORIC VOICE: And they came to the heights of Kiev. Oleg let his men hide in the longships, while he sent for the traitors, saying, "We are merchants from your own country on our way to the Greeks. Come and visit us!" When the traitors arrived, Oleg killed them, and made Kiev into the mother of all the towns of Russia.

JONATHAN SHEPARD: The really interesting question about the move of some of the Vikings down to Kiev is why on earth they bothered, because the journey down south from Kiev along the river, the Dnieper, was a very difficult one. There were some mighty cataracts, which could very easily wreck their fragile craft.

NARRATOR: Kiev was small, but it stood at a strategic point on the Dnieper River, which led to the Black Sea and eventually to the Byzantine Empire. This territory was filled with hostile tribes, and the river itself turned threatening, with rapids and cataracts that the Vikings called "Aifor"—"the always violent."

But if the Viking traders could survive this journey, they would launch their boats onto the Black Sea. 500 more miles of sailing, and they would reach their goal: Constantinople, today known as Istanbul. During the Viking Age, Constantinople was the capital of the Byzantine empire. It was the biggest and richest city in Europe.

JONATHAN SHEPARD: A Viking visitor can't have seen anything like this before. Constantinople was a megalopolis. It was a great city by modern standards. The population was maybe 100,000, maybe half a million, and it had mighty Roman walls. In a way, it's best to think of it as a kind of time warp. This was the Roman empire, still existing, still with Roman legions, still with Roman titles and a kind of Roman empire, in fact the Byzantines called themselves Romans.

NARRATOR: The Vikings were impressed by Constantinople, but not intimidated. They launched several attacks against the city. The Russian Chronicle describes a campaign carried out by Oleg in the year 907.

HISTORIC VOICE: Oleg came to Constantinople with 2,000 ships. The citizens closed the straits and took shelter inside the city. Oleg commanded the Rus to put wheels on their ships, and with good wind, they headed against the city itself. The Rus committed innumerable killings outside the city walls, tore down palaces, and burned churches. They killed or tortured their prisoners.

NARRATOR: With each attack on Constantinople, the Vikings were ultimately rebuffed by the much larger Byzantine army. But they were a definite threat, and the Byzantine emperor knew he would have to do business with them.

JONATHAN SHEPARD: The Byzantines were quite subtle with their diplomacy, and they had the sense to see that if they could offer a relatively easy way of getting rich to the Vikings, they might dissuade them from raiding; in other words, offer trade instead of raid.

NARRATOR: Several treaties were drawn up, spelling out the terms under which Viking traders could enter the city.

THOMAS NOONAN: The Vikings forced their way into the markets. They threatened Constantinople with military flotillas, with naval attacks, and then they forced the Byzantines to agree to formal trade treaties which prescribed exactly how many Rus could come for trading, what they could bring, how long they could stay. And of course, a very important provision: they could not go into Constantinople itself carrying their weapons.

NARRATOR: An exception was made for the Scandinavians recruited by the Byzantine emperor to serve as his personal protectors. These mercenaries came to be known as the Varangian Guard.

JONATHAN SHEPARD: The Byzantines always had their eye open for tough barbarians. Very much in the footsteps of their Roman predecessors, they wanted to use barbarian brawn to civilized purposes. So they were quite quick to recruit Viking warriors to act as bodyguards for the emperor, for show purposes around the palace, and also for doing hard graft in the actual battles on the eastern front and so on. The Byzantines were always confident that they could manipulate barbarians, that they could actually harness their brute strength to their own purposes and use them as the sinews of the Byzantine army.

NARRATOR: Among the many decorative mosaics found in Istanbul are traces of the Viking mercenaries.

VERA BURGURLU: These mosaics are part of the great palace, Justinian's palace, in a large courtyard, and among them is a portrait of a northerner, a blond northerner, and this mask is believed to be a Viking.

NARRATOR: One of the duties of the Varangians was to guard the Byzantine emperor during the elaborate religious services that took place in the majestic Hagia Sophia cathedral. This building still stands, capped with one of the largest domes ever constructed in ancient times. Inside, Runic letters can be found carved into the marble balcony rails. Graffiti scrawled by visiting Vikings, including a message, mostly faded, from "Halvdan." Vikings like Halvdan may have enjoyed a comfortable life in Constantinople, but the people who benefited most from the good relations with Byzantium were the Viking elite who governed from Kiev.

THOMAS NOONAN: Kiev gave them control of the great trade with Constantinople and Byzantium. And that was the secret of their wealth and their power. They were the ones who controlled all the boats, bringing all the furs and all the slaves down to Byzantium. And of course they grew wealthy from that.

NARRATOR: Into Kiev flowed the riches from Constantinople and beyond, including beautiful jewelry for the wealthy ladies of the Rus court. This elaborate necklace contains over two pounds of intricate gold filigree. One of the most famous rulers of Kiev was Vladimir, the great grandson of the original Viking Prince Rurik. A German contemporary described the Grand Prince as "an immense and rude fornicator." According to the monk Nestor, Vladimir kept several hundred concubines in towns throughout Russia. After killing off several of his brothers in a long and bloody civil war, he seized control of Kiev around 980. In the land of the Rus, such violence was par for the course.

JONATHAN SHEPARD: This was a violent society. We do after all have an Arab writer describing the way of life of the Rus, saying that things were so dangerous that a man didn't even dare go to the lavatory without having four comrades with their swords in hand guarding him as he relieved himself.

NARRATOR: The Vikings and the people they dominated worshipped a vast array of Slavic and Scandinavian gods. Prince Vladimir decided to find a more modern religion for his country, so he invited missionaries representing several faiths to his court in Kiev. Nestor reports that Vladimir dismissed the Catholics because they demanded fasting, and he thought their services were ugly. To the Jewish delegates he said, "If God had loved you and your law, he wouldn't have spread you around like this." And Islam was rejected because, in his words, "Drinking is the joy of the Rus, and we cannot live without this pleasure." Ultimately, Vladimir's close ties to Constantinople determined his decision. Near the end of the 10th century, he chose the religion of Byzantium and declared that all the Rus would become Eastern Orthodox Christians.

THOMAS NOONAN: By accepting orthodoxy from Byzantium, you created a single faith for peoples who had nothing in common. Slavs, Finns, Balts, Vikings all now had one new faith that they could believe in. And they all, over the course of time, gave up their old paganisms and became Orthodox together. So that a Rus then became someone who was part of the Rus state and who was an Orthodox Christian.

NARRATOR: 1,000 years after Vladimir's conversion, Russians are uncovering their roots, and embracing their Viking heritage. In Novgorod, once a trading center south of Staraja Ladoga, archeologists are excavating large areas of the medieval town. Hundreds of local schoolchildren help with the dig.

LYUBA SMIRNOVA: The state of preservation of wood and other organic objects is perfect. These great beams of wood were cut maybe 800 years ago, and they still look like modern ones.

NARRATOR: The team has uncovered the remains of two-story timber houses and dozens of artifacts, dating to the 12th century, when the land of the Rus was united under the control of the princes of Kiev. Among the Slavic objects, there are still traces of Scandinavian design, remnants of the Viking traders who had settled in Russia. But the most amazing find is a cache of letters, written on birch bark, and preserved on tiny scrolls. They offer an intimate view into the culture the Vikings had helped to create. One letter was from an early victim of domestic violence.

HISTORIC VOICE: Greetings from Fovronja to Filkis with complaints. My stepson beat me and chased me away from the farm. Shall I come to town or will you come here yourself? I'm all beaten up.

NARRATOR: Another scroll enclosed a child's drawing. And then, an 800-year- old love letter.

LYUBA SMIRNOVA: Two years ago, we found a very interesting birch bark document, written by a woman, a well-educated woman. It was sort of a love letter, this scream of love from the early 12th century.

HISTORIC VOICE: I have sent for you three times. What kind of anger kept you from visiting me last Sunday? Have my letters affected you? If you really wanted to love me, you would tear yourself away from the eyes of people and meet me somewhere else. Were it even the case that due to my unreason I have affected you, if you start mocking me, then God and my littleness will be your judge. I shall never leave you.

NARRATOR: But the majority of the letters were more mundane:

HISTORIC VOICE: It has been nine years since you received a cross from me, and you still haven't sent me any money. Unless you immediately send me four and a half grivna, I will make you lose honor and credibility. Clear this debt immediately.

JONATHAN SHEPARD: The commonest subject in the Novgorod birch bark letters is money and aspects of money. This was a society in which people agreed about one thing, that was the need for wealth, the need for money and the common quest to get more of it.

NARRATOR: By the time the Novgorod letters were written, Vikings had been in Russia for over 200 years. Over the generations, they became almost indistinguishable from the Slavs.

MATS G. LARSSON [voice over translation]: Since the princes' dynasty and the leading level of society were a small part of the population, they became more and more assimilated into the Slavic society. They probably married Slavic girls, and their children were raised by Slavic women, and all the time they lived in this foreign society. The effect of this is obvious in the archeological material and in the names of the princes. The first prince's name, Rurik, derives from the Scandinavian name Roereker. His son was called Igor, from the Scandinavian name Ingvar. Next there was Sviataslav, a Slavic name.

NARRATOR: The Vikings in the east may have lost their identity as Scandinavians, but they had completely transformed the country and the culture, unifying a huge region of eastern Europe into a new kingdom: Russia.

THOMAS NOONAN: The Vikings, through their trade networks, through their political ruthlessness, welded a state together, whether the people liked it or not. And it was done primarily so the Vikings could get rich and powerful and rule over that area. Because that's why they left their homelands, because they could make a career abroad. They were the nucleus, they were the force. And without that vital force, there would have never been a Rus state.

NARRATOR: For almost 300 years, the Vikings were a vital force throughout Europe and beyond, traveling further from their homelands than the ancient Greeks or Romans ever did. In their great longships, they ventured out in search of wealth and glory, with sword and shield subduing anyone who stood in their way. In the process of seeking their fortunes, the Vikings linked together dozens of different peoples, and set the stage for the emergence of modern Europe. By the end of the 11th century, Scandinavian kings ruled over a prosperous and secure land. But beyond their homelands, the Vikings had virtually disappeared, blended into the populations they once terrorized. The Viking Age had come to an end.

On NOVA's Website, go back in time. Explore a Viking village, write your name in Runes, and trace the Viking conquest at pbs.org or America Online keyword: PBS.

To order this show or any other NOVA program for $19.95 plus shipping and handling, call WGBH Boston Video at 1-800-255-9424.

NOVA is a production of WGBH Boston.

Major funding for NOVA is provided by the Park Foundation, dedicated to education and quality television.

CNET.com, helping you find the right technology products.

This program is funded in part by Northwestern Mutual Life, which has been protecting families and businesses for generations. Have you heard from The Quiet Company? Northwestern Mutual Life.

And by the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, and by contributions to your PBS station from viewers like you. Thank you.

This is PBS.

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